2006 1986 1969 In this study we make use of data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study (PYS), a longitudinal study covering a period of over 14 years. Our aim is to test whether distinct developmental trajectories based on delinquency seriousness can be identified and whether parenting styles are differentially linked to membership of these trajectories. Parenting and Delinquency 1990 1993 1990 1990 1993 2002 2003 1993 2003 2002 1 From Parenting Dimensions to Parenting Styles 1986 1997 2005 2003 2002 1983 1971 1993 Prior Research and Current Focus 2002a b 2000 2001 2003 2004 1995 2001 2003 2002 2000 2001 1995 2001 2003 2000 1998 2002a b 2004 2000 1990 2001 2002 In sum, general theories of delinquency have argued that family risk factors discriminate between delinquents and non-delinquents. Indeed, there is extensive empirical evidence for family risk factors to explain level differences in delinquency. However, whether distinct delinquency trajectories are linked to different parenting styles is still ambiguous. Therefore, this paper addresses the following research questions: (1) which distinctive delinquency trajectories are empirically identifiable using self-reported and official delinquency from late childhood through late adolescence? (2) What are the delinquency characteristics of the trajectory groups? (3) Do parenting styles, which we consider to be composites of behaviors or relationships in which the parent and child are directly involved, differentiate between the offending trajectory groups, above and beyond prior delinquent behavior and demographic variables? Materials and Methods Sample and Procedure 1998 1998 2003 Measures Parenting variables Relationship Supervision Physical punishment Communication Reinforcement 2007 2 Demographic variables 1975 Delinquency 1985 1987 convictions 2001 2000 1986 General Delinquency Seriousness Classification 1998 1985 3 Prior delinquency types of delinquency 4 total delinquency frequency total number of convictions 1998 2007 Analytic Strategy z 1989 parenting styles 2003 2006 2005 A delinquency trajectories 2005 2001 5 2005 B Subsequently, a multinomial logit model was used to sort out the redundancy among parenting styles and to control for risk factors, such as demographics, and prior delinquency. This model tested whether a parenting style affects the probability of group membership in each of the delinquency trajectory groups relative to the nondelinquency group. In addition, we conducted Wald tests to examine potential differences in risk factors between delinquency trajectories, that is, the trajectories excluding the nondelinquency trajectory. Results Description of the Trajectories 1 6 Fig. 1 pred obs  7 1 Table 1 Delinquency characteristics of the offending trajectories   n n n n n General delinquency  Delinquency seriousness 0.1 0.7 0.8 2.1 1.6  Peak level 0.1 0.8 1.7 2.4 3.0  Peak age 19 19 12 15 14  Self-reported delinquency 1.0 15.1 8.9 109.2 66.6  Number of convictions 0.1 1.4 0.1 5.5 4.0 Crime mix (percentages)  Nondelinquent 59.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0  Theft 11.3 46.1 37.4 48.8 54.0  Violence 4.2 16.0 2.4 20.6 16.1  Vandalism 3.2 13.1 13.3 15.5 13.1  Fraud 3.9 15.1 28.2 14.1 11.7  Other 18.1 9.7 18.8 0.9 5.0  Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 r p r p 1 1 Parenting Styles as Predictors A 8 1993 1983 2 3 2 Table 2 Multivariate tests of differences in background, prior delinquency, and parenting style between offending trajectories   Nondelinquents (27.2%) Minor persisting (27.6%) Moderate desisting (6.8%) Serious persisting (24.2%) Serious desisting (14.3%) Model I  Demographics   African Americans – 0.60 (0.39) −0.04 (0.50) 0.86 (0.30)** 1.04 (0.41)*   Low SES – 0.50 (0.47) 0.19 (0.69) 0.50 (0.38) 0.80 (0.45)**** Model II  Demographics   African Americans – 0.66 (0.39)**** 0.10 (0.55) 0.76 (0.38)* 1.05 (0.44)*   Low SES – 0.96 (0.49)* 0.38 (0.86) 0.89 (0.49)**** 1.07 (1.52)*  Delinquency  Prior delinquency – 0.98 (0.20)*** 1.25 (0.30)*** 1.58 (0.22)*** 1.21 (0.23)*** Model III  Demographics   African Americans – 0.68 (0.37)**** −0.26 (0.60) 0.44 (0.43) 0.98 (0.52)****   Low SES – 0.88 (0.47)**** 0.33 (0.81) 0.50 (0.50) 0.58 (0.59)  Delinquency   Prior delinquency – 0.87 (0.20)*** 1.20 (0.30)*** 0.25 (0.25)*** 1.03 (0.25)***  Parenting Style   Authoritarian style – 0.59 (0.40) 1.70 (1.02)**** 0.48 (0.48)* 0.28 (0.59)   Neglectful Style – 0.55 (0.72) 2.44 (1.20)* 0.71 (0.71)* 1.96 (0.69)** Numbers are multinomial logit coefficients with standard errors given in parentheses. Trajectory 1 is used as a reference group. The BIC is −5,598.3 for model I, −5,447.9 for model II, and −5,459.9 for model III. p p p p Table 3 Means of background, prior delinquency, and parenting style for each offending trajectory based on the multinomal logit model (model III)   n n n n n Demographic variables  African Americans 0.39 0.66 0.39 0.63 0.73  Low SES 0.12 0.29 0.15 0.23 0.24 Delinquency  Prior delinquency 0.60 1.56 2.06 2.31 1.90 Parenting styles  Authoritarian style 0.32 0.50 0.58 0.51 0.25  Neglectful style 0.05 0.14 0.33 0.31 0.47 Prior delinquency is the delinquency seriousness classification during childhood (ages 7.5 up to 10) based on self-reports. The remaining means are proportions as the variables are dichotomous. χ 2 p χ 2 p χ 2 p 2 Discussion Prompted by recent theories distinguishing different developmental pathways and the role attributed by these theories to parenting in the etiology of these pathways, we set out to test whether there was evidence for adolescent boys to follow different trajectories of delinquency seriousness and whether these trajectories were linked to caretakers’ parenting styles during childhood. Using person-centered methods and adopting a multidimensional perspective on parenting we identified five delinquency trajectories and three parenting styles. Parenting styles were differentially linked to delinquency with neglectful parenting linked to moderate desisting and serious persisting and desisting trajectories and authoritarian parenting linked to serious persistent delinquency. 2006 1997 1998 1998 2007 2001 1995 2001 2003 1983 1994 2001 2001 1991 2007 1993 1990 1993 2005 1999 2000 1994 2005 9 2003 2007 2001 κ N 10 2003 1969 1982 1993 These results have implications for family-oriented prevention strategies in that they provide information on which combinations of parenting dimensions are particularly relevant. Preventive actions should focus on neglectful families characterized by harsh punishment, inadequate discipline, and low levels of supportive parenting in their effort to reduce the risk of youngsters from these families setting off to a future of serious delinquency.