Equus kiang E. hemionus Schaller 1998 Fox and others 1991 Shah 1996 E. k. kiang Shah 2002 Fox and others 1991 Anon 2003 Richard 1999 Bhatnagar and Wangchuk 2001 Moehlman 2002 Methods Study Area 2 2 Changpa −2 Pfister 2004 1 1 2 Fig. 1 Chundawat and Qureshi 1999  Table 1 Density of kiang in the surveyed blocks of eastern Ladakh, India Survey block Transect length (km) 2 No. Kiang −2 Loma-Demchok (Indus) 82 288 249 0.86 Hanle Valley 66 347 78 0.23 Chushul-Loma 63 299 19 0.06 Parma Valley 74 360 9 0.03 Pongong Tso 80 359 10 0.03 Total 365 1653 365 0.24 (95% CL ± 0.44) Data Collection and Analysis pashmina Our data on the kiang population in Ladakh come from rangewide surveys conducted in the year 2000. The study area was surveyed from a slow-moving vehicle (traveling at 10–12 km/hour) and areas on either side were periodically scanned using an 8× binocular and/or 20× spotting scope. On every sighting, animals were counted and classified, and habitat variables such as topographic feature, elevation, slope, aspect, dominant plant species, and approximate plant cover were recorded. Classification of kiang by sex was not possible in most instances due to the similarity between the sexes, especially when seen from a distance. A total distance of 365 km was covered in the Changthang, traveling on an average 60–70 km per day. We also covered approximately 50 km on foot in the upper catchment of the Hanle Valley. Subsequently, in the spring of 2001, 2003, and 2004, we conducted repeated vehicle counts of kiang along an approximately 100-km stretch in the Hanle Valley, which had emerged as an area with moderate to high kiang density during the 2000 survey. Density for kiang and livestock was calculated by estimating the area covered in each segment using Geographical Information System (GIS) tools. The area surveyed along the roads was estimated by creating a “viewscape” in ArcInfo, which effectively created polygons of all area visible from the road. The base map used for this estimation was the National Imagery and Mapping Agency’s Vector Map Level 0 (Digital Chart of the World) Edition: 5. This was integrated with the Digital Elevation Model (resolution 90 m or 3 arc seconds) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data from the Space Shuttle mission (for the year 2000) obtained from ftp://e0mss21u.ecs.nasa.gov/srtm/ to generate maps of the study area with numerous layers of information that included elevation, aspect, and drainage. After creating the viewscape, we used a cutoff distance of 3 km on either side of the road, within which all visible areas were calculated. This was generally our maximum sighting distance for the kiang (most Rangefinders do not work at this distance). We estimated the extent of the surveyed areas (through viewscapes) for both the rangewide surveys as well as the region of our repeated kiang counts in Hanle Valley. Foose 1982 Mishra and others (2002) Foose 1982 W W −0.315 W −0.236 W −0.231 W −0.184 Foose 1982 Results and Discussion Genesis of the Conflict: Kiang Population Changes in Recent History 2 Chundawat and Qureshi 1999 1 Stockley 1936 Fox and others 1991 Fox and others 1991 Shah 2002 Fox and others 1994 Fox and others 1991 Anon. 2003 Fox and others 1991 Intensification of the Conflict: Changing Face of Pastoralism in Ladakh Schaller 1998 ribos Changpa Phuntsok 2000 Hagalia 2004 Hagalia 2004 Changpa Chaudhuri 2000 Bhatnagar and Wangchuk 2001 Changpa 1 Bhatnagar and Wangchuk, 2001 Hagalia 2004 Richard 1999 Bhatnagar and Wangchuk 2001 pashmina Changra Rizvi 1999 Jina 1995 Jina 1995 Joshi and Morup 2003 Mital 2004 The recent intensification of human–kiang conflict needs to be viewed against these socioeconomic and political developments. The human and livestock populations in kiang habitat have significantly increased in the last four decades due to factors ranging from better healthcare to the influx of refugees. Furthermore, promotion of production and value of cashmere has meant that livestock rearing is fast becoming a cash-based enterprise that increasingly caters directly to the lucrative global cashmere market. Herders are realizing the importance of every bit of pastureland in maximizing cashmere production and see kiang as a direct threat to pasture production. Against this background, it is perhaps not surprising that people are fast losing their tolerance of the kiang. The Ecological Context: Current Kiang Population and Relationships with Livestock 2 2 Chundawat and Qureshi 1999 −2 1 1 −2 n Carex Kobresia Stipa Caragana Schaller (1998) Artemisia Tanacitum Sedum Saussurea Salsola Polygonum 2 Table 2 Herbivore density and estimated forage consumption by kiang vis-à-vis livestock in Changthang Species Body weight(kg) −2 −2 Percent forage consumption in summer −2 Percent forage consumption in winter Kiang 275 0.24 1.6 10 1.2 11 Livestock         Donkey 90 0.04 0.1 1 0.1 1   Horse 248 0.15 0.9 5 0.7 6   Cattle 191 0.16 0.7 4 0.5 4   Yak 298 0.26 1.5 9 1.1 10   Yak cattle hybrids 227 0.01 0.03 <1 0.02 <1   Sheep 34 3.98 4.4 27 2.9 26   Goat 33 6.44 6.9 43 4.5 41 Livestock total 1121 11.03 14.5 90 9.7 89 Total  11.27 16.08  10.96  Mishra (2001) 2 3 Table 3 Herbivore density and estimated forage consumption by kiang vis-à-vis livestock in the Hanle Valley Species Body weight (kg) −2 −2 Percent forage consumption in summer −2 Percent forage consumption in winter Kiang 275 0.56 3.6 3 2.8 4 Livestock         Donkey 90 0 0 0 0 0   Horse 248 1.57 9.5 8 7.4 9   Cattle 191 0.66 2.7 2 1.9 2   Yak 298 3.91 22.8 20 16.5 21   Yak cattle hybrids 227 0 0 0 0 0   Sheep 34 21.52 23.7 20 15.5 19   Goat 33 50.69 54.5 47 35.5 45 Livestock total 1121 78.34 113.2 97 76.7 96 Total  78.90 32.4  79.6  Synthesis of the Conflict: Is It Real or Perceived? Blom 2000 Dudley and others 2002 Mishra and Fitzherbert 2004 2 −2 Schaller 1998 −2 2 −1 Mishra 2001 2 2 In the absence of any scientific understanding of the conflict so far, or efforts to document it, this local conflict has already begun to take on a serious political dimension. The politicians and the district administration in Ladakh are blaming the kiang for compromising cashmere production, and the wildlife department is being looked upon to provide a solution. The only on-ground reaction of the district administration has been to fence large productive sedge and grass meadows from the kiang. In the Hanle Valley alone, an estimated 120 ha of meadows have been fenced already. Three fourths of our total kiang sightings during the rangewide surveys were in such meadows, suggesting that this is an important habitat for the species, and continued fencing of this habitat may cause a decline in the kiang population of Ladakh. Procapra picticaudata